The Constitution of India

0 0 RABI KR. PANDIT Tuesday, October 7, 2025 Edit this post

The Constitution of India

The Constitution of India is the supreme law of India, laying down the framework defining fundamental political principles, establishes the structure, procedures, powers, and duties of government institutions, and sets out fundamental rights, directive principles, and the duties of citizens.

It is the longest written constitution of any country in the world, adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26th November 1949 and came into effect on 26th January 1950, a day that is celebrated annually as Republic Day in India.

The Preamble to the Constitution declares India to be a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, and Democratic Republic. It aims to secure justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity for its citizens.

The need for a Constitution was felt after India gained independence from British rule on 15th August 1947. The task of drafting the Constitution was entrusted to the Constituent Assembly of India, which was formed in December 1946. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar served as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee, which was responsible for drafting the document.

Topic	Details
Jurisdiction	Applies to the entire country of India.
Ratified On	26 November 1949 (the Constitution was accepted and signed).
Came into Force	26 January 1950 (India officially became a Republic).
System of Government	Federal, Parliamentary, and Democratic Republic.
Structure of Government	Three parts – Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary.
Head of State	President of India.
Head of Government	Prime Minister of India and Council of Ministers.
Parliament	Two Houses – Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
Judiciary	Includes Supreme Court, High Courts, and District Courts.
Federal System	Power shared between Centre and States (Centre has more authority).
Electoral College	Used for electing the President and Vice President.
Entrenchments	Special rules for changing certain parts of the Constitution.
Total Amendments	106 (as of 2025).
Last Amendment	28 September 2023 (106th Amendment).
Total Articles	470 Articles (after all amendments till 2025).
Citation	Constitution of India (updated till 1 May 2024).
Location	Samvidhan Sadan (Old Parliament Building), New Delhi, India.
Signatories	Signed by 284 members of the Constituent Assembly.
Replaced	Government of India Act, 1935 and Indian Independence Act, 1947.

Parts of Indian Constitution

The Constitution of India is not just a book of laws — it’s the soul of our democracy. It defines how our government works, what powers each part of the government has, and what rights and duties citizens enjoy.

When the Constitution was adopted on 26th January 1950, it was one of the longest written constitutions in the world. It originally had 22 Parts, 395 Articles, and 8 Schedules. Over the years, through amendments, it has grown — as of 2025, the Constitution now has 25 Parts, 470+ Articles, and 12 Schedules.

Each Part of the Constitution focuses on a specific area — like Fundamental Rights, the Parliament, the Judiciary, States, Emergency Provisions, and so on. Together, they make up the full framework that runs the Republic of India.

Let’s go through each Part of the Constitution in simple, easy words and understand what it covers and why it matters.

Part I – The Union and Its Territory (Articles 1 to 4)

Part II – Citizenship (Articles 5 to 11)

Part III – Fundamental Rights (Articles 12 to 35)

Part IV – Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 36 to 51)

Part IVA – Fundamental Duties (Article 51A)

Part V – The Union (Articles 52 to 151)

Part VI – The States (Articles 152 to 237)

Part VII – States in the B Part of the First Schedule

Part VIII – The Union Territories (Articles 239 to 242)

Part IX – The Panchayats (Articles 243 to 243O)

Part IXA – The Municipalities (Articles 243P to 243ZG)

Part IXB – Co-operative Societies (Articles 243ZH to 243ZT)

Part X – The Scheduled and Tribal Areas (Articles 244 to 244A)

Part XI – Relations Between the Union and the States (Articles 245 to 263)

Part XII – Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits (Articles 264 to 300A)

Part XIII – Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the Territory of India (Articles 301 to 307)

Part XIV – Services under the Union and the States (Articles 308 to 323)

Part XIVA – Tribunals (Articles 323A to 323B)

Part XV – Elections (Articles 324 to 329A)

Part XVI – Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes (Articles 330 to 342)

Part XVII – Official Language (Articles 343 to 351)

Part XVIII – Emergency Provisions (Articles 352 to 360)

Part XIX – Miscellaneous (Articles 361 to 367)

Part XX – Amendment of the Constitution (Article 368)

Part XXI – Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions (Articles 369 to 392)

Part XXII – Short Title, Commencement, and Repeals (Articles 393 to 395)

Part XXIII – Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes (Articles 330A to 342B)

Part XXIV – Territory, Citizenship, and Other Matters (Added through recent amendments)

Part XXV – New Provisions (Post–104th Amendment adjustments)

The Parts of the Indian Constitution show how carefully the framers designed every detail of governance — from village panchayats to the Supreme Court, from citizenship to emergency powers.

Each part is like a chapter in the story of India’s democracy. Together, they ensure that our nation runs smoothly, protects people’s rights, and adapts to changing times.

Even after more than 75 years, the Constitution remains strong and living — not because it’s perfect, but because it keeps growing, just like India itself.

Schedules of the Constitution of India

The Constitution of India is not just a book of laws — it’s a living document that guides the country’s political, social, and legal system. It has Articles, Parts, and something many people overlook — the Schedules.

If the Articles are like the main chapters of the Constitution,
the Schedules are like the appendices — they provide extra details, lists, and explanations that support the main text.

Originally, when the Constitution came into effect in 1950, there were 8 Schedules.
Over the years, through amendments, 4 more were added, making it 12 Schedules in total today.

Each Schedule has a specific purpose — from listing the states, languages, and forms of oaths, to defining how seats in the Rajya Sabha are divided, and even how salaries of government officers are fixed.

Let’s explore each of these 12 Schedules one by one, in simple and clear words.

What Are Schedules in the Constitution?

In simple terms, Schedules are lists or tables attached to the Constitution.

They contain detailed information that supports the Articles —
like maps, names, numbers, powers, or procedures — which would otherwise make the Articles too long.

For example:

Article 1 talks about “India and its territory,” and the First Schedule lists all the States and Union Territories.
Article 343 talks about the “official languages,” and the Eighth Schedule lists those languages.

So, the Articles state the principles, while the Schedules list the specifics.

The 12 Schedules of the Indian Constitution

Below is the complete list of all 12 Schedules, with simple explanations for each.

Schedule	What It Contains
First Schedule	Lists all States and Union Territories with their territories.
Second Schedule	Salaries, allowances, and privileges of top officials like President, Governors, Judges, etc.
Third Schedule	Forms of oaths or affirmations taken by government officials and members of legislatures.
Fourth Schedule	Allocation of seats to each State and UT in the Rajya Sabha.
Fifth Schedule	Administration and control of Scheduled Areas and Tribes in India.
Sixth Schedule	Administration of tribal areas in North-Eastern States through Autonomous Councils.
Seventh Schedule	Division of powers between Union and States — Union, State, and Concurrent Lists.
Eighth Schedule	List of 22 officially recognized languages in India.
Ninth Schedule	Protects certain land reform and social welfare laws from judicial review.
Tenth Schedule	Anti-Defection Law — disqualification of legislators on changing political parties.
Eleventh Schedule	Lists 29 subjects under the powers of Panchayats (rural local government).
Twelfth Schedule	Lists 18 subjects under the powers of Municipalities (urban local government).

🟩 First Schedule – States and Union Territories

This First Schedule lists all the States and Union Territories of India, along with their territories.

Originally, there were 14 States and 6 Union Territories in 1950.
Today (after many reorganizations), India has 28 States and 8 Union Territories.

It also explains how new states or UTs can be formed or existing ones can be changed.

In short, The First Schedule is the map of India in words — listing all the parts that make up the country.

🟨 Second Schedule – Salaries, Allowances, and Privileges

This Second schedule defines the salaries and allowances for top officials of the government.

It includes:

The President and Governors
The Speaker, Deputy Speaker, Chairman, and Deputy Chairman of Parliament and State Legislatures
The Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts
The Comptroller and Auditor-General (CAG)

It also defines their privileges and pension rights.

In short:
This Schedule is like the salary chart for India’s highest officials.

🟦 Third Schedule – Forms of Oaths or Affirmations

This third schedule lists the official oaths taken by:

The President and Vice President
Ministers at the Union and State level
Members of Parliament and State Legislatures
Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts
Comptroller and Auditor-General (CAG)

Each oath includes a promise to bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India.

In short, The Third Schedule tells us the exact words of oath used when leaders and officials take office.

🟧 Fourth Schedule – Allocation of Seats in the Rajya Sabha

This Fourth schedule shows how many seats each State and Union Territory gets in the Rajya Sabha (Council of States).

The number of seats depends on the population of the state or territory.

For example:

Uttar Pradesh has the most seats,
while smaller UTs like Goa or Sikkim have fewer.

In short, The Fourth Schedule explains how India’s States and UTs are represented in the Rajya Sabha.

🟪 Fifth Schedule – Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes

This Fifth schedule gives special provisions for the administration of areas with large tribal populations.

It provides for:

Tribal Advisory Councils in states
Governor’s powers to manage Scheduled Areas
Presidential power to declare or modify such areas

It aims to protect the culture, land, and rights of Scheduled Tribes while promoting their welfare.

In short:
The Fifth Schedule safeguards the tribal communities living in mainland India.

🟫 Sixth Schedule – Administration of Tribal Areas in the North-East

This schedule is specific to tribal regions in the North-Eastern states — like Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.

It allows for the creation of Autonomous District Councils and Regional Councils,
which have legislative and administrative powers for local governance.

These councils can make laws on subjects like land, forests, water, agriculture, and village administration.

In short:
The Sixth Schedule gives self-rule and protection to North-Eastern tribal communities.

🟩 Seventh Schedule – Division of Powers Between the Union and States

The Seventh Schedule is one of the most important schedules of the Constitution.

It divides the powers and subjects of law-making between the Union (Centre) and the States.

It has three lists:

Union List – 97 subjects (like defence, foreign affairs, railways, currency)
State List – 66 subjects (like police, health, agriculture)
Concurrent List – 47 subjects (like education, marriage, forests)

If there’s ever a conflict, the Union law prevails.

In short:
The Seventh Schedule decides who makes what laws in India.

🟨 Eighth Schedule – Languages

This Eighth schedule lists the languages recognized by the Indian Constitution.

Originally, there were 14 languages listed in 1950.
Now there are 22 languages, including Hindi, English, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Gujarati, Marathi, Malayalam, Punjabi, Kannada, Odia, Assamese, and others.

The Constitution also encourages the development and promotion of these languages.

In short, The Eighth Schedule is the list of India’s official languages.

🟦 Ninth Schedule – Validation of Certain Acts and Regulations

This ninth schedule was added by the First Amendment in 1951 to protect certain land reform laws from being challenged in courts.

It contains laws that deal with land redistribution, tenancy reforms, and abolition of zamindari.

Over time, many laws have been added to it — but in 2007, the Supreme Court ruled that even laws in this schedule can be reviewed if they violate the basic structure of the Constitution.

In short, The Ninth Schedule protects social reform laws (especially land reforms) from judicial interference.

🟧 Tenth Schedule – Anti-Defection Law

This was added by the 52nd Amendment Act, 1985.

It prevents political defections — when elected members switch parties for personal or political gain.

If a Member of Parliament or State Assembly switches parties or disobeys party directions during a vote, they can lose their seat.

The Speaker or Chairman of the House decides disqualification cases.

In short, The Tenth Schedule keeps political stability by discouraging party-hopping.

🟪 Eleventh Schedule – Powers of the Panchayats

Added by the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992, this schedule lists 29 subjects that can be handled by Panchayati Raj Institutions at the village, block, and district levels.

Some subjects include:

Agriculture
Rural housing
Drinking water
Roads
Health and sanitation
Poverty alleviation programs

In short, The Eleventh Schedule gives local self-government powers to villages.

🟫 Twelfth Schedule – Powers of the Municipalities

Added by the 74th Amendment Act, 1992, this schedule lists 18 subjects related to urban local governance — for Municipalities and Corporations.

It includes:

Urban planning
Water supply
Public health
Solid waste management
Urban forestry
Slum improvement

In short, The Twelfth Schedule empowers city governments to manage local urban affairs.

The Schedules make the Constitution clear, organized, and practical. Instead of crowding the main Articles with long lists and technical details, the Schedules keep that information neatly separated.

They also make amendments easier — Parliament can update or revise these lists without rewriting entire Articles.

List of All Articles (1-395) of Indian Constitution

The Constitution initially had 395 articles, which have been expanded through various amendments. Articles detail everything from the rights and duties of citizens, to the powers and functions of the government at various levels.

PART I: THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY

Article 1 - Name and territory of the Union.
Article 2 - Admission or establishment of new States.
Article 2A - [Repealed.]
Article 3 - Formation of new States and alteration of areas, boundaries or names of existing States.
Article 4 Laws made under articles 2 and 3 to provide for the amendment of the First and the Fourth Schedules and supplemental, incidental and consequential matters.

PART II: CITIZENSHIP

Article 5 - Citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution.
6 Rights of citizenship of certain persons who have migrated to India from Pakistan.
7 Rights of citizenship of certain migrants to Pakistan.
8 Rights of citizenship of certain persons of Indian origin residing outside India.
9 Persons voluntarily acquiring citizenship of a foreign State not to be citizens.
10 Continuance of the rights of citizenship.
11 Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law.

PART III : FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS

General

12 Definition.
Article 13 - Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of the fundamental rights.
Right to Equality
Article 14 - Equality before law.
Article 15 - Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth.
Article 16 - Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.
17 Abolition of Untouchability.
18 Abolition of titles.

Right to Freedom

Article 19 - Protection of certain rights regarding freedom of speech, etc.
Article 20 Protection in respect of conviction for offences.
Article 21 Protection of life and personal liberty.
Article 21A - Right to education
Article 22 - Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
Right against Exploitation
23 Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour.
24 Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.
Right to Freedom of Religion
Article 25 Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice and propagation of religion.
Article 26 Freedom to manage religious affairs.
Article 27 Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.
Article 28 Freedom as to attendance at religious instruction or religious worship in certain educational institutions.

Cultural and Educational Rights

29 Protection of interests of minorities.
30 Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.
Article 31 [Repealed.]
Saving of Certain Laws
31A Saving of Laws providing for the acquisition of estates, etc.
31B Validation of certain Acts and Regulations.
31C Saving of laws giving effect to certain directive principles.
31D [Repealed.]

Right to Constitutional Remedies

32 Remedies for enforcement of rights conferred by this Part.
32A [Repealed.]
33 Power of Parliament to modify the rights conferred by this Part in their application to Forces, etc.
34 Restriction on rights conferred by this Part while martial law is in force in any area.
35 Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this Part.
Article 35A - Special rights and privileges to the residents of Jammu and Kashmir

PART IV: DIRECTIVE PRINCIPLES OF STATE POLICY

36 Definition.
37 Application of the principles contained in this Part.
38 State to secure a social order for the promotion of the welfare of the people.
39 Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State.
Article 39A Equal justice and free legal aid.
40 The organisation of village panchayats.
41 Right to work, to education and to public assistance in certain cases.
42 Provision for just and humane conditions of work and maternity relief.
43 Living wage, etc., for workers.
43A Participation of workers in the management of industries.
43B Promotion of co-operative societies.
Article 44 Uniform civil code for the citizens.
Article 45 Provision for free and compulsory education for children.
46 Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections.
47 Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public health.
48 The organisation of agriculture and animal husbandry.
48A Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wildlife.
49 Protection of monuments and places and objects of national importance.
50 Separation of judiciary from the executive.
51 Promotion of international peace and security.

PART IVA: FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES

Article 51A Fundamental duties.

PART V: THE UNION

CHAPTER I: THE EXECUTIVE

The President and Vice-President

52 The President of India.
53 The executive power of the Union.
54 Election of President.
55 Manner of election of President.
56 Term of office of President.
57 Eligibility for re-election.
58 Qualifications for election as President.
59 Conditions of the President’s office.
60 Oath or affirmation by the President.
61 Procedure for impeachment of the President.
62 Time of holding the election to fill the vacancy in the office of President and the term of office of person elected to fill the casual vacancy.
63 The Vice-President of India.
64 The Vice-President to be ex officio Chairman of the Council of States.
65 The Vice-President to act as President or to discharge his functions during casual vacancies in the office, or during the absence, of President.
66 Election of Vice-President.
67 Term of office of Vice-President.
68 Time of holding the election to fill the vacancy in the office of Vice-President and the term of office of person elected to fill the casual vacancy.
69 Oath or affirmation by the Vice-President.
70 Discharge of President’s functions in other contingencies.
71 Matters relating to, or connected with, the election of a President or Vice-President.
Article 72 Power of President to grant pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases.
73 The extent of executive power of the Union.
Council of Ministers
74 Council of Ministers to aid and advise the President.
75 Other provisions as to Ministers.
The Attorney-General for India
76 Attorney-General for India.
Conduct of Government Business
77 Conduct of business of the Government of India.
78 Duties of Prime Minister as respects the furnishing of information to the President, etc.

CHAPTER II: PARLIAMENT

General

79 Constitution of Parliament.
Article 80 - Composition of the Council of States.
81 Composition of the House of the People.
82 Readjustment after each census.
83 Duration of Houses of Parliament.
84 Qualification for membership of Parliament.
85 Sessions of Parliament, prorogation and dissolution.
86 Right of President to address and send messages to Houses.
87 Special address by the President.
88 Rights of Ministers and Attorney-General as respects Houses.
Officers of Parliament
89 The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Council of States.
90 Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the office of Deputy Chairman.
91 Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Chairman.
92 The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.
93 The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the House of the People .
94 Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
95 Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Speaker.
96 The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.
97 Salaries and allowances of the Chairman and Deputy Chairman and the Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
98 Secretariat of Parliament.
Conduct of Business
99 Oath or affirmation by members.
100 Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act notwithstanding vacancies and quorum.
Disqualifications of Members
101 Vacation of seats.
102 Disqualifications for membership.
103 Decision on questions as to disqualifications of members.
104 Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath or affirmation under article 99 or when not qualified or when disqualified.
Powers, Privileges and Immunities of Parliament and its Members
105 Powers, privileges, etc., of the Houses of Parliament and of the members and committees thereof.
106 Salaries and allowances of members.
Legislative Procedure
107 Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills.
108 Joint sitting of both Houses in certain cases.
109 Special procedure in respect of Money Bills.
110 Definition of “Money Bills”.
111 Assent to Bills.
Procedure in Financial Matters
112 Annual financial statement.
113 Procedure in Parliament with respect to estimates.
114 Appropriation Bills.
115 Supplementary, additional or excess grants.
116 Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional grants.
117 Special provisions as to financial Bills.
Procedure Generally
118 Rules of procedure.
119 Regulation by law of procedure in Parliament in relation to financial business.
120 Language to be used in Parliament.
121 Restriction on discussion in Parliament.
122 Courts not to inquire into proceedings of Parliament.

CHAPTER III: LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT

123 Power of President to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Parliament.

CHAPTER IV: THE UNION JUDICIARY

124 Establishment and constitution of Supreme Court.
124A National Judicial Appointments Commission. (Declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court, however not repealed by the Parliament)
124B Functions of Commission.
124C Power of Parliament to make law.
125 Salaries, etc., of Judges.
126 Appointment of acting Chief Justice.
127 Appointment of ad hoc judges.
128 Attendance of retired Judges at sittings of the Supreme Court.
129 Supreme Court to be a court of record.
130 Seat of Supreme Court.
131 Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
131A [Repealed.]
132 Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in certain cases.
133 Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in appeals from High Courts in regard to Civil matters.
134 Appellate jurisdiction of Supreme Court in regard to criminal matters.
134A Certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court.
135 Jurisdiction and powers of the Federal Court under existing law to be exercisable by the Supreme Court.
136 Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court.
137 Review of judgments or orders by the Supreme Court.
138 Enlargement of the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
139 Conferment on the Supreme Court of powers to issue certain writs.
139A Transfer of certain cases.
140 Ancillary powers of Supreme Court.
141 Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts.
142 Enforcement of decrees and orders of Supreme Court and orders as to discovery, etc.
143 Power of President to consult Supreme Court.
144 Civil and judicial authorities to act in aid of the Supreme Court.
144A [Repealed.]
145 Rules of Court, etc.
146 Officers and servants and the expenses of the Supreme Court.
147 Interpretation.

CHAPTER V: COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR-GENERAL OF INDIA

148 Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.
149 Duties and powers of the Comptroller and Auditor-General.
150 Form of accounts of the Union and of the States.
151 Audit reports.

PART VI: THE STATES

CHAPTER I: GENERAL

152 Definition.

CHAPTER II: THE EXECUTIVE

The Governor

153 Governors of States.
154 Executive power of State.
155 Appointment of Governor.
156 Term of office of Governor.
157 Qualifications for appointment as Governor.
158 Conditions of Governor’s office
159 Oath or affirmation by the Governor.
160 Discharge of the functions of the Governor in certain contingencies.
Article 161 - Power of Governor to grant pardons, etc., and to suspend, remit or commute sentences in certain cases.
162 Extent of executive power of State.
Council of Ministers
163 Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor.
164 Other provisions as to Ministers.
The Advocate-General for the State
165 Advocate-General for the State.
Conduct of Government Business
166 Conduct of business of the Government of a State.
167 Duties of Chief Minister as respects the furnishing of information to Governor, etc.

CHAPTER III: THE STATE LEGISLATURE

General

168 Constitution of Legislatures in States.
169 Abolition or creation of Legislative Councils in States.
170 Composition of the Legislative Assemblies.
171 Composition of the Legislative Councils.
172 Duration of State Legislatures.
173 Qualification for membership of the State Legislature.
174 Sessions of the State Legislature, prorogation and dissolution.
175 Right of Governor to address and send messages to the House or Houses.
176 Special address by the Governor.
177 Rights of Ministers and Advocate-General as respects the Houses.
Officers of the State Legislature
178 The Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly.
179 Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Speaker and Deputy Speaker.
180 Power of the Deputy Speaker or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Speaker.
181 The Speaker or the Deputy Speaker not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.
182 The Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council.
183 Vacation and resignation of, and removal from, the offices of Chairman and Deputy Chairman.
184 Power of the Deputy Chairman or other person to perform the duties of the office of, or to act as, Chairman.
185 The Chairman or the Deputy Chairman not to preside while a resolution for his removal from office is under consideration.
186 Salaries and allowances of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker and the Chairman and Deputy Chairman.
187 Secretariat of State Legislature.
Conduct of Business
188 Oath or affirmation by members.
189 Voting in Houses, power of Houses to act notwithstanding vacancies and quorum.
Disqualifications of Members
190 Vacation of seats.
191 Disqualifications for membership.
192 Decision on questions as to disqualifications of members.
193 Penalty for sitting and voting before making oath or affirmation under article 188 or when not qualified or when disqualified.
Powers, privileges and immunities of State Legislatures and their Members
194 Powers, privileges, etc., of the Houses of Legislatures and of the members and committees thereof.
195 Salaries and allowances of members.
Legislative Procedure
196 Provisions as to introduction and passing of Bills.
197 Restriction on powers of Legislative Council as to Bills other than Money Bills.
198 Special procedure in respect of Money Bills.
199 Definition of “Money Bills”.
200 Assent to Bills.
201 Bills reserved for consideration.
Procedure in Financial Matters
202 Annual financial statement.
203 Procedure in Legislature with respect to estimates.
204 Appropriation Bills.
205 Supplementary, additional or excess grants.
206 Votes on account, votes of credit and exceptional grants.
207 Special provisions as to financial Bills.
Procedure Generally
208 Rules of procedure.
209 Regulation by law of procedure in the Legislature of the State in relation to financial business.
210 Language to be used in the Legislature.
211 Restriction on discussion in the Legislature.
212 Courts not to inquire into proceedings of the Legislature.

CHAPTER IV : LEGISLATIVE POWER OF THE GOVERNOR

213 Power of Governor to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Legislature.

CHAPTER V: THE HIGH COURTS IN THE STATES

214 High Courts for States.
215 High Courts to be courts of record.
216 Constitution of High Courts.
217 Appointment and conditions of the office of a Judge of a High Court.
218 Application of certain provisions relating to Supreme Court to High Courts.
219 Oath or affirmation by Judges of High Courts.
220 Restriction on practice after being a permanent Judge.
221 Salaries, etc., of Judges.
222 Transfer of a Judge from one High Court to another.
223 Appointment of acting Chief Justice.
224 Appointment of additional and acting Judges.
224A Appointment of retired Judges at sittings of High Courts.
225 Jurisdiction of existing High Courts.
226 Power of High Courts to issue certain writs.
226A [Repealed..]
227 Power of superintendence over all courts by the High Court.
228 Transfer of certain cases to High Court.
228A [Repealed.]
229 Officers and servants and the expenses of High Courts.
230 Extension of jurisdiction of High Courts to Union territories.
231 Establishment of a common High Court for two or more States.

CHAPTER VI : SUBORDINATE COURTS

233 Appointment of district judges.
233A Validation of appointments of, and judgments, etc., delivered by, certain district judges.
234 Recruitment of persons other than district judges to the judicial service.
235 Control over subordinate courts.
236 Interpretation.
237 Application of the provisions of this Chapter to certain class or classes of magistrates.

PART VII: THE STATES IN PART B OF THE FIRST SCHEDULE

238 [Repealed.]

PART VIII: THE UNION TERRITORIES

239 Administration of Union territories.
239A Creation of local Legislatures or Council of Ministers or both for certain Union territories.
239AA Special provisions with respect to Delhi.
239AB Provision in case of failure of constitutional machinery.
239B Power of the administrator to promulgate Ordinances during recess of the Legislature.
240 Power of the President to make regulations for certain Union territories.
241 High Courts for Union territories.
242 [Repealed.]

PART IX: THE PANCHAYATS

243 Definitions.
243A Gram Sabha.
243B Constitution of Panchayats.
243C Composition of Panchayats.
243D Reservation of seats.
243E Duration of Panchayats, etc.
243F Disqualifications for membership.
243G Powers, authority and responsibilities of Panchayats.
243H Powers to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Panchayats.
243-I Constitution of Finance Commission to review financial position.
243J Audit of accounts of Panchayats.
243K Elections to the Panchayats.
243L Application to Union territories.
243M Part not to apply to certain areas.
243N Continuance of existing laws and Panchayats.
243-O Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.

PART IXA: THE MUNICIPALITIES

243P Definitions.
243Q Constitution of Municipalities.
243R Composition of Municipalities.
243S Constitution and composition of Wards Committees, etc.
243T Reservation of seats.
243U Duration of Municipalities, etc.
243V Disqualifications for membership.
243W Powers, authority and responsibilities of Municipalities, etc.
243X. Power to impose taxes by, and Funds of, the Municipalities.
243 Finance Commission.
243Z Audit of accounts of Municipalities.
243ZA Elections to the Municipalities.
243ZB Application to Union territories.
243ZC Part not to apply to certain areas.
243ZD Committee for district planning.
243ZE Committee for Metropolitan planning.
243ZF Continuance of existing laws and Municipalities.
243ZG Bar to interference by Courts in electoral matters.

PART IXB: THE CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES

243ZH Definitions
243ZI Incorporation of co-operative societies
243ZJ Number and term of members of the board and its office bearers.
243 ZK Election of members of board.
243ZL Supersession and suspension of the board and interim management.
243ZM Audit of accounts of co-operative societies.
243ZN Convening of general body meetings.
243ZO Right of a member to get information,
243ZP Returns.
243ZQ Offences and penalties.
243ZR Application to multi-state co-operative societies.
243ZS Application to Union Territories.
243ZT Continuance of existing laws.

PART X: THE SCHEDULED AND TRIBAL AREAS

244 Administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas.
244A Formation of an autonomous State comprising certain tribal areas in Assam and creation of local Legislature or Council of Ministers or both therefor.

PART XI: RELATIONS BETWEEN THE UNION AND THE STATES

CHAPTER I: LEGISLATIVE RELATIONS

Distribution of Legislative Powers

245 Extent of laws made by Parliament and by the Legislatures of States.
Article 246 - Subject-matter of laws made by Parliament and by the Legislatures of States.
246A Special provision with respect to goods and services tax.
247 Power of Parliament to provide for the establishment of certain additional courts.
Article 248 Residuary powers of legislation.
249 Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a matter in the State List in the national interest.
250 Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to any matter in the State List if a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation.
251 Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament under articles 249 and 250 and laws made by the Legislatures of States.
252 Power of Parliament to legislate for two or more States by consent and adoption of such legislation by any other State.
253 Legislation for giving effect to international agreements.
Article 254 Inconsistency between laws made by Parliament and laws made by the Legislatures of States.
255 Requirements as to recommendations and previous sanctions to be regarded as matters of procedure only.

CHAPTER II : ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONS

General

256 Obligation of States and the Union.
257 Control of the Union over States in certain cases.
257A [Repealed.]
258 Power of the Union to confer powers, etc., on States in certain cases.
258A Power of the States to entrust functions to the Union.
259 [Repealed.]
260 Jurisdiction of the Union in relation to territories outside India.
261 Public acts, records and judicial proceedings.
Disputes relating to Waters
262 Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of inter-State rivers or river valleys.
Co-ordination between States
263 Provisions with respect to an inter-State Council.

PART XII: FINANCE, PROPERTY, CONTRACTS AND SUITS

CHAPTER I: FINANCE

General

264 Interpretation.
265 Taxes not to be imposed save by authority of law.
266 Consolidated Funds and public accounts of India and of the States.
267 Contingency Fund.
Distribution of Revenues between the Union and the States
268 Duties levied by the Union but collected and appropriated by the State.
268A [Repealed.]
269 Taxes levied and collected by the Union but assigned to the States.
269A Levy and collection of goods and services tax in the course of inter-state trade or commerce.
270 Taxes levied and distributed between the Union and the States.
271 Surcharge on certain duties and taxes for purposes of the Union.
272 [Repealed.]
273 Grants in lieu of export duty on jute and jute products.
274 Prior recommendation of President required to Bills affecting taxation in which States are interested.
275 Grants from the Union to certain States.
276 Taxes on professions, trades, callings and employments.
277 Savings.
278 [Repealed.]
279 Calculation of “net proceeds”, etc.
279A Goods and Services Tax Council.
280 Finance Commission.
281 Recommendations of the Finance Commission.
Miscellaneous financial provisions
282 Expenditure defrayable by the Union or a State out of its revenues.
283 Custody, etc., of Consolidated Funds, Contingency Funds and moneys credited to the public accounts.
284 Custody of suitors’ deposits and other moneys received by public servants and courts.
285 Exemption of property of the Union from State taxation.
286 Restrictions as to imposition of tax on the sale or purchase of goods.
287 Exemption from taxes on electricity.
288 Exemption from taxation by States in respect of water or electricity in certain cases.
289 Exemption of property and income of a State from Union taxation.
290 Adjustment in respect of certain expenses and pensions.
290A Annual payment to certain Devaswom Funds.
291 [Repealed.]

CHAPTER II: BORROWING

292 Borrowing by the Government of India.
293 Borrowing by States.

CHAPTER III: PROPERTY, CONTRACTS, RIGHTS, LIABILITIES, OBLIGATIONS AND SUITS

294 Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities and obligations in certain cases.
295 Succession to property, assets, rights, liabilities and obligations in other cases.
296 Property accruing by escheat or laps or as bona vacantia.
297 Things of value within territorial waters or continental shelf and resources of the exclusive economic zone to vest in the Union.
298 Power to carry on trade, etc.
299 Contracts.
300 Suits and proceedings.

CHAPTER IV: RIGHT TO PROPERTY

Article 300A Persons not to be deprived of property save by authority of law.

PART XIII: TRADE, COMMERCE, AND INTERCOURSE WITHIN THE TERRITORY OF INDIA

301 Freedom of trade, commerce, and intercourse.
302 Power of Parliament to impose restrictions on trade, commerce, and intercourse.
303 Restrictions on the legislative powers of the Union and of the States with regard to trade and commerce.
304 Restrictions on trade, commerce, and intercourse among States.
305 Saving of existing laws and laws providing for State monopolies.
306 [Repealed.]
307 Appointment of authority for carrying out the purposes of articles 301 to 304.

PART XIV: SERVICES UNDER THE UNION AND THE STATES

CHAPTER I: SERVICES

308 Interpretation.
309 Recruitment and conditions of service of persons serving the Union or a State.
310 Tenure of office of persons serving the Union or a State.
311 Dismissal, removal or reduction in rank of persons employed in civil capacities under the Union or a State.
312 All-India services.
312A Power of Parliament to vary or revoke conditions of service of officers of certain services.
313 Transitional provisions.
314 [Repeated.]

CHAPTER II: PUBLIC SERVICE COMMISSIONS

315 Public Service Commissions for the Union and for the States.
316 Appointment and term of office of members.
317 Removal and suspension of a member of a Public Service Commission.
318 Power to make regulations as to conditions of service of members and staff of the Commission.
319 Prohibition as to the holding of offices by members of Commission on ceasing to be such members.
320 Functions of Public Service Commissions.
321 Power to extend functions of Public Service Commissions.
322 Expenses of Public Service Commissions.
323 Reports of Public Service Commissions.

PART XIVA: TRIBUNALS

323A Administrative tribunals.
323B Tribunals for other matters.

PART XV: ELECTIONS

324 Superintendence, direction and control of elections to be vested in an Election Commission.
325 No person to be ineligible for inclusion in, or to claim to be included in a special, electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste or sex.
326 Elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of States to be on the basis of adult suffrage.
327 Power of Parliament to make provision with respect to elections to Legislatures.
328 Power of Legislature of a State to make provision with respect to elections to such Legislature.
329 Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.
329A [Repealed.]

PART XVI: SPECIAL PROVISIONS RELATING TO CERTAIN CLASSES

330 Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People.
331 Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the House of the People.
332 Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies of the States.
333 Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the Legislative Assemblies of the States.
334 Reservation of seats and special representation to cease after sixty years.
335 Claims of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes to services and posts.
336 Special provision for Anglo-Indian community in certain services.
337 Special provision with respect to educational grants for the benefit of the Anglo-Indian Community.
338 National Commission for Scheduled Castes.
338A National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
338A National Commission for Backward Classes.
339 Control of the Union over the Administration of Scheduled Areas and the welfare of Scheduled Tribes.
340 Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of backward classes.
341 Scheduled Castes.
342 Scheduled Tribes.
342A Socially and educationally backward classes.

PART XVII: OFFICIAL LANGUAGE

CHAPTER I: LANGUAGE OF THE UNION

343 Official language of the Union.
344 Commission and Committee of Parliament on official language.

CHAPTER II: REGIONAL LANGUAGES

345 Official language or languages of a State.
346 Official language for communication between one State and another or between a State and the Union.
347 Special provision relating to language spoken by a section of the population of a State.

CHAPTER III: LANGUAGE OF THE SUPREME COURT, HIGH COURTS, ETC.

348 Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts and for Acts, Bills, etc.
349 Special procedure for enactment of certain laws relating to language.

CHAPTER IV: SPECIAL DIRECTIVES

350 Language to be used in representations for redress of grievances.
350A Facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at the primary stage.
350B Special Officer for linguistic minorities.
351 Directive for development of the Hindi language.

PART XVIII: EMERGENCY PROVISIONS

Article 352 - Proclamation of Emergency.
353 Effect of Proclamation of Emergency.
354 Application of provisions relating to distribution of revenues while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation.
355 Duty of the Union to protect States against external aggression and internal disturbance.
Article 356 - Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States.
357 Exercise of legislative powers under Proclamation issued under article 356.
358 Suspension of provisions of article 19 during emergencies.
Article 359 Suspension of the enforcement of the rights conferred by Part III during emergencies.
359A [Repealed.]
Article 360 - Provisions as to financial emergency.

PART XIX: MISCELLANEOUS

361 Protection of President and Governors and Rajprakukhs.
361A Protection of publication of proceedings of Parliament and State Legislatures.
361B Disqualification for appointment on remunerative political post.
362 [Repealed.]
363 Bar to interference by courts in disputes arising out of certain treaties, agreements, etc.
363A Recognition granted to Rulers of Indian States to cease and privy purses to be abolished.
364 Special provisions as to major ports and aerodromes.
365 Effect of failure to comply with, or to give effect to, directions given by the Union.
366 Definitions.
367 Interpretation.

PART XX: AMENDMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION

Article 368 - Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure therefor.

PART XXI: TEMPORARY, TRANSITIONAL AND SPECIAL PROVISIONS

369 Temporary power to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters in the State List as if they were matters in the Concurrent List.
Article 370 - Temporary provisions with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
371 Special provision with respect to the States of Maharashtra and Gujarat.
371A Special provision with respect to the State of Nagaland.
371B Special provision with respect to the State of Assam.
371C Special provision with respect to the State of Manipur.
371D Special provisions with respect to the State of Andhra Pradesh.
371E Establishment of Central University in Andhra Pradesh.
Article 371F - Special provisions with respect to the State of Sikkim.
371G Special provision with respect to the State of Mizoram.
371H Special provision with respect to the State of Arunachal Pradesh.
371-I Special provision with respect to the State of Goa.
371J Special provision with respect to the State of Karnataka.
372 Continuance in force of existing laws and their adaptation.
372A Power of the President to adapt laws.
373 Power of President to make order in respect of persons under preventive detention in certain cases.
374 Provisions as to Judges of the Federal Court and proceedings pending in the Federal Court or before His Majesty in Council.
375 Courts, authorities and officers to continue to function subject to the provisions of the Constitution.
376 Provisions as to Judges of High Courts.
377 Provisions as to Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.
378 Provisions as to Public Service Commissions.
378A Special provision as to the duration of Andhra Pradesh Legislative Assembly.
379-391 [Repealed.]
392 Power of the President to remove difficulties.

PART XXII: SHORT TITLE, COMMENCEMENT, AUTHORITATIVE TEXT IN HINDI AND REPEALS

393 Short title.
394 Commencement.
394A Authoritative text in the Hindi language.
395 Repeals.

Amendments

The Constitution of India is a living document — it grows, adapts, and changes with time.
When it was adopted on 26 January 1950, the framers knew that India would evolve socially, economically, and politically.
So, they made sure the Constitution could be amended — changed or updated — whenever needed.

These changes are made through Constitutional Amendments under Article 368.
Over the years, India has passed more than 100 amendments to keep pace with changing needs and realities.

Some amendments have expanded people’s rights.
Some have restructured states.
Some have balanced power between Parliament and the judiciary.

Let’s look at the most notable amendments that shaped the India we live in today — explained in simple words.

What Is a Constitutional Amendment?

An amendment means an official change or addition to the Constitution.

It can:

Add new Articles or Schedules
Modify existing ones
Remove outdated provisions

These changes are made to adjust to social and political developments — without rewriting the whole Constitution.

Under Article 368, there are three types of amendments:

Simple Majority Amendments – Passed like an ordinary law (e.g., formation of new states).
Special Majority Amendments – Require two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament.
Special Majority + State Ratification – Some amendments also need approval by at least half of the state legislatures (e.g., federal structure changes).

List of Notable Amendments

Below are the key Constitutional Amendments that brought major changes to India’s political and legal structure.

Amendment	Key Highlights
1st (1951)	Added Ninth Schedule; allowed land reforms and reasonable speech restrictions.
7th (1956)	Reorganized states on linguistic basis.
24th (1971)	Gave Parliament full power to amend the Constitution.
25th (1971)	Reduced property rights; supported land reforms.
26th (1971)	Abolished Privy Purses for former rulers.
29th (1972)	Protected Kerala Land Reforms laws in Ninth Schedule.
42nd (1976)	Added “Socialist,” “Secular”; Fundamental Duties; expanded Parliament powers.
44th (1978)	Restored democracy; safeguarded life and liberty during emergencies.
52nd (1985)	Introduced Anti-Defection Law (Tenth Schedule).
61st (1989)	Lowered voting age from 21 to 18 years.
73rd (1992)	Established Panchayati Raj; Eleventh Schedule added.
74th (1992)	Created Municipalities; Twelfth Schedule added.
86th (2002)	Made free education a Fundamental Right (Article 21A).
91st (2003)	Capped size of ministries to 15% of legislature strength.
97th (2011)	Gave constitutional status to Co-operative Societies (Part IXB).
101st (2016)	Introduced Goods and Services Tax (GST).
103rd (2019)	10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS).
104th (2020)	Extended SC/ST reservation; ended Anglo-Indian seats.
105th (2021)	Restored states’ power to identify OBCs.
106th (2023)	Reserved 33% of seats for women in Parliament and Assemblies.

🟩 1st Amendment (1951) – Land Reforms and Freedom of Speech

The first change came just a year after the Constitution was adopted.
It:

Added the Ninth Schedule to protect land reform laws from court interference.
Put reasonable restrictions on freedom of speech.
Allowed reservations in education and jobs for socially and economically backward classes.

👉 It was the beginning of India’s social justice journey.

🟨 7th Amendment (1956) – Reorganization of States

This amendment reorganized India’s states on linguistic basis.

It removed the old classification of states (Parts A, B, C, and D).
Introduced 14 states and 6 Union Territories.
Created a more uniform administrative system across the country.

👉 It shaped the India map as we know it today.

🟦 24th Amendment (1971) – Power of Parliament to Amend the Constitution

This amendment made it clear that Parliament has full power to amend any part of the Constitution, including Fundamental Rights.
It came after the Golaknath case (1967), where the Supreme Court had ruled otherwise.

👉 It restored Parliament’s authority to make major constitutional changes.

🟪 25th Amendment (1971) – Curtailing the Right to Property

This amendment limited the Right to Property to help implement land reforms.
It allowed the government to acquire private property for public welfare and added Article 31C, protecting certain laws from being challenged in court.

👉 It shifted focus from individual property rights to social justice.

🟫 26th Amendment (1971) – Abolition of Privy Purses

After Independence, former kings and princes were paid Privy Purses as compensation for merging their states with India.
This amendment ended that practice, abolishing royal privileges and payments.

👉 It marked the end of India’s princely system — true equality for all.

🟧 29th Amendment (1972) – Kerala Land Reforms

This amendment placed two Kerala land reform laws in the Ninth Schedule, protecting them from judicial review.
It led to the historic Kesavananda Bharati Case (1973), which established the Basic Structure Doctrine.

👉 It became the foundation for India’s most important constitutional principle.

🟩 42nd Amendment (1976) – The “Mini-Constitution”

One of the most powerful and controversial amendments ever.
It was passed during the Emergency (1975–77) and made sweeping changes:

Added the words “Socialist,” “Secular,” and “Integrity” to the Preamble.
Reduced the power of courts to review laws.
Extended the term of Parliament from 5 to 6 years.
Gave more powers to the central government.
Added Fundamental Duties (Article 51A).

👉 It tried to strengthen the government but weakened checks and balances — leading to later corrections.

🟨 44th Amendment (1978) – Undoing the Emergency’s Excesses

After the Emergency, this amendment was passed to restore democracy.

It:

Reduced Parliament’s term back to 5 years.
Restored the power of courts to review laws.
Made it harder to declare National Emergency.
Protected Article 20 and 21 (life and liberty) even during emergencies.

👉 It brought back the spirit of democracy and liberty.

🟦 52nd Amendment (1985) – Anti-Defection Law

It added the Tenth Schedule to the Constitution.
It disqualifies legislators if they switch political parties after being elected.

👉 It aimed to prevent political instability and party-hopping.

🟪 61st Amendment (1989) – Voting Age Lowered

This amendment reduced the voting age from 21 to 18 years for Lok Sabha and State Assembly elections.

👉 It empowered India’s youth to participate in democracy.

🟫 73rd Amendment (1992) – Panchayati Raj

This amendment gave constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions.

Added Part IX and the Eleventh Schedule.
Provided for three-tier local governance — Gram Panchayat, Panchayat Samiti, and Zila Parishad.

👉 It brought democracy to the village level.

🟧 74th Amendment (1992) – Urban Local Bodies

This amendment created Municipalities and Municipal Corporations for cities and towns.

Added Part IXA and the Twelfth Schedule.
Ensured urban self-government and regular elections.

👉 It gave power to cities to manage their own development.

🟩 86th Amendment (2002) – Right to Education

This made education a Fundamental Right for children aged 6 to 14 years.

Added Article 21A.
Made free and compulsory education a legal duty of the government.

👉 It turned the dream of universal education into a right.

🟨 91st Amendment (2003) – Restricting the Size of Ministries

To prevent unnecessary political expansion, this amendment:

Limited the number of ministers in the central and state governments to 15% of the total members of the legislature.
Strengthened the anti-defection law.

👉 It ensured smaller, more efficient governments.

🟦 97th Amendment (2011) – Co-operative Societies

This gave constitutional status to co-operative societies.

Added Part IXB.
Promoted democratic and professional management of co-ops.

👉 It empowered local communities and farmers to work together.

🟪 101st Amendment (2016) – Goods and Services Tax (GST)**

This was one of the biggest economic reforms in Indian history.
It introduced a single indirect tax system for the whole country.

Added Article 246A and a GST Council.
Replaced many central and state taxes with GST.

👉 It made “One Nation, One Tax, One Market” a reality.

🟫 103rd Amendment (2019) – 10% Reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS)**

This amendment provided 10% reservation in education and government jobs for EWS candidates (from non-reserved categories).

Added Articles 15(6) and 16(6).

👉 It expanded reservation beyond caste, focusing on economic inequality.

🟧 104th Amendment (2020) – Extending SC/ST Reservation in Parliament

This extended reservation for SCs and STs in Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for another 10 years (till 2030).
However, it ended the reserved Anglo-Indian seats in Parliament.

👉 It continued political representation for marginalized communities.

🟩 105th Amendment (2021) – State Power Over OBC Lists

After a Supreme Court judgment, this amendment restored the states’ power to identify and maintain their own list of Other Backward Classes (OBCs).

👉 It strengthened the federal structure and states’ autonomy.

🟦 106th Amendment (2023) – Women’s Reservation in Parliament and Assemblies

A historic reform for gender equality.
This amendment reserves 33% of seats for women in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies.

👉 It ensures that women have a stronger voice in law-making and governance.

Amendments ensure that our Constitution, while stable, never becomes outdated.

Timeline of formation of the Constitution of India

The formation of the Constitution of India is a remarkable journey marked by significant events that laid the foundation of the Republic of India. Here’s a timeline of the key milestones in the formation of the Indian Constitution:

1858 – British Crown Takes Over

After the Revolt of 1857, the East India Company lost control and India came under direct British rule — the start of constitutional governance.

1919 – Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms

Introduced Dyarchy in provinces and gave limited powers to Indians — a small step toward self-rule.

1928 – Nehru Report

First Indian attempt to draft a Constitution, led by Motilal Nehru. Suggested Dominion status and Fundamental Rights.

1935 – Government of India Act

Introduced provincial autonomy and federal structure — later inspired major parts of India’s Constitution.

1942 – Cripps Mission

Proposed self-government after World War II — rejected by Indian leaders, but acknowledged future independence.

1946 – Cabinet Mission Plan

Proposed the creation of a Constituent Assembly to frame India’s Constitution. Elections held the same year.

9 December 1946 – First Meeting

The Constituent Assembly met for the first time. Dr. Sachchidananda Sinha served as interim President.

11 December 1946 – Dr. Rajendra Prasad Elected

Dr. Rajendra Prasad became the permanent President; H. C. Mukherjee the Vice President.

13 December 1946 – Objective Resolution

Jawaharlal Nehru introduced the Objective Resolution — the foundation of the Preamble.

15 August 1947 – India’s Independence

India became free. The Constituent Assembly now served as both the Parliament and Constitution-making body.

29 August 1947 – Drafting Committee Formed

Dr. B. R. Ambedkar became Chairman of the Drafting Committee. The team began writing the Constitution.

February 1948 – First Draft Published

The first draft of the Constitution was shared for public feedback — 7,000+ suggestions were received.

4 November 1948 – Draft Constitution Presented

Dr. Ambedkar introduced the draft Constitution in the Assembly. Debates began and continued for nearly 3 years.

26 November 1949 – Constitution Adopted

After 2 years, 11 months, and 18 days, the Constituent Assembly adopted the Constitution. Now celebrated as Constitution Day.

24 January 1950 – Members Sign the Constitution

Members signed the final handwritten copies in Hindi and English. Dr. Rajendra Prasad became India’s first President.

26 January 1950 – Constitution Comes Into Force

India officially became a Sovereign Democratic Republic. 26 January chosen in honor of “Purna Swaraj Day” (1930).

The entire process, from the first meeting of the Constituent Assembly to the adoption and implementation of the Constitution, took approximately three years. The Constitution reflects the aspirations of the Indian people and incorporates various features from different countries, adapting them to Indian needs and conditions. G. V. Mavlankar became the first Speaker of the Lok Sabha, marking India's transition to a republic.

Sources of The Constitution of India

The Constitution of India is not just the largest written constitution in the world — it’s also one of the most unique and intelligent blends of ideas ever created.

When the framers began writing it, they didn’t start from scratch. They studied constitutions from all over the world, picked the best features that suited India’s needs, and adapted them to Indian conditions.

As Dr. B. R. Ambedkar said:

“There is nothing to be ashamed of in borrowing. It shows that we have not been slaves of tradition but have been willing to learn from others.”

So, the Indian Constitution is not a copy — it’s a beautiful fusion of the best ideas of governance, justice, liberty, and democracy.

Let’s understand where its different parts came from and how they were shaped.

Government of India Act, 1935

Laid the foundation — federal structure, emergency powers, judiciary, and administration framework.

United Kingdom (UK)

Parliamentary democracy, Rule of Law, Single citizenship, bicameral legislature, cabinet system.

United States of America (USA)

Fundamental Rights, Judicial Review, Independence of judiciary, Preamble format, impeachment of President.

Ireland

Directive Principles of State Policy, Rajya Sabha nominations, election of the President.

Canada

Federal system with strong center, Governor’s role, advisory jurisdiction of Supreme Court.

Australia

Concurrent List, freedom of trade between states, joint sitting of both Houses.

Germany (Weimar Constitution)

Emergency powers and suspension of rights during crises.

USSR (Russia)

Social and economic justice ideals, Five-Year Plans, Fundamental Duties (added in 1976).

France

Republican system, ideals of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity in the Preamble.

Japan

Procedure for amending the Constitution.

South Africa

Election of Rajya Sabha members and constitutional amendment procedure.

Government of India Act, 1935

Before we look abroad, we must note that the Government of India Act, 1935 was the main foundation of our Constitution.

Nearly 60–70% of the Indian Constitution’s structure was influenced by it.

Federal system with a strong center.
Office of Governor.
Powers of the Federal and Provincial Governments.
Public Service Commissions (Union & State).
Emergency powers.
Judiciary and administrative framework.

This Act was like India’s “practice draft” — it gave the basic shape, and our framers improved it to make it democratic and people-centered.

United Kingdom (UK)

India had been under British rule, so the parliamentary system was already familiar.

Parliamentary form of government – Executive responsible to the Legislature.
Rule of Law – Everyone is equal under the law.
Single citizenship – Only one national citizenship.
Bicameral Legislature – Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha.
Cabinet system – Prime Minister as the head of the Council of Ministers.
Speaker of the Lok Sabha and their role.
Writs (Habeas Corpus, Mandamus, etc.) through the courts.

From the UK, we learned democracy in action — government by the people, for the people, and answerable to the people.

United States of America (USA)

The US Constitution was the first written constitution in the world and known for its clarity on rights and separation of powers.

Fundamental Rights (like Bill of Rights).
Independence of the Judiciary.
Judicial Review.
President as Head of the State.
Impeachment of the President.
Removal of Supreme Court judges.
Post of Vice-President.
Preamble format – beginning with “We, the People.”

From America, we took the spirit of liberty — individual rights, checks and balances, and a strong judiciary to protect citizens.

Ireland

Ireland’s Constitution was known for combining democracy with social justice.

Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSPs) – guiding principles for welfare and justice.
Nomination of members to Rajya Sabha by the President.
Method of election of the President.

From Ireland, we took the soul of welfare democracy — to make sure freedom goes hand in hand with social equality.

Canada

Canada is a federal country like India, with powers divided between the center and provinces.

Federal system with a strong center.
Appointment of Governors by the Center.
Advisory jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
Residual powers with the Union (not States).

From Canada, we learned how to balance unity with diversity — a federation that remains strong and united.

Australia

Australia’s system showed how to manage federal relations in a vast democratic setup.

Concurrent List – subjects where both center and states can make laws.
Freedom of trade and commerce between states.
Joint sittings of both Houses of Parliament.

From Australia, we took ideas for cooperative federalism — working together, not competing.

Germany (Weimar Constitution)

The German (Weimar) Constitution had advanced provisions for national emergencies.

Emergency powers – suspension of Fundamental Rights during crises.
Provisions on the President’s role during emergencies.

From Germany, we learned how to protect democracy during danger — but also set limits to prevent misuse.

Soviet Union (USSR)

The Soviet Union (now Russia) inspired India’s vision of social and economic equality.

Ideals of justice (social, economic, political) in the Preamble.
Five-Year Plans for development.
Fundamental Duties (added later by 42nd Amendment, 1976).

From the USSR, we borrowed the idea that democracy must also uplift the poor — not just hold elections.

France

France’s revolutionary ideals shaped modern democracy.

Republican form of government.
Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity in the Preamble.

From France, we took the heart of democracy — freedom, equality, and brotherhood.

Japan

Japan’s Constitution had unique emergency and parliamentary features.

Procedure for amendment of the Constitution.

From Japan, we borrowed the discipline of change — to make amendments systematic, not chaotic.

South Africa

Its post-apartheid Constitution offered models for racial equality and indirect elections.

Procedure of election of the Rajya Sabha members.
Amendment procedures.

From South Africa, we learned how to build democracy from pain — inclusivity for all races and communities.

The Constitution of India is not borrowed — it’s built. Every feature, from Fundamental Rights to the Preamble, carries a bit of global wisdom — but it’s written in India’s own heart and soul.

Our founders didn’t copy other nations — they studied, understood, and Indianized the best global principles.

That’s why, even decades later, the Indian Constitution remains flexible, modern, and relevant —
a living document that keeps India democratic, diverse, and strong.

Books on the Constitution of India

The Constitution of India is one of the most detailed and powerful constitutions in the world.
To truly understand how it was framed, how it works, and how it shapes our democracy, you need the right books — written by experts, scholars, and even those who lived through its making.

Here’s a list of the 10 most important and trusted books on the Indian Constitution — ranging from beginner-friendly to advanced reference works.

Reader Type	Recommended Book
Beginner / General Reader	Our Constitution: An Introduction to India’s Constitution and Constitutional Law – Subhash C. Kashyap
Student (UPSC / Civics)	Introduction to the Constitution of India – D. D. Basu
Law Student	Indian Constitutional Law – M. P. Jain
Academic / Researcher	Commentary on the Constitution of India – D. D. Basu
Historian / Political Interest	The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation – Granville Austin
Modern Reader	The Indian Constitution: A Conversation with Power – Gautam Bhatia
Constitutional Evolution	India’s Constitution: Origins and Evolution – S. Pal
Focused Topic (Amendment)	Sixteen Stormy Days: The Story of the First Amendment – Tripurdaman Singh
Critical / Socio-Political Analysis	To Kill a Democracy: India’s Passage to Despotism – Debasish Roy Chowdhury & John Keane
Legal Practice / Reference	The Constitution of India (Bare Act / Official Text) – Updated Edition

1. Introduction to the Constitution of India – D. D. Basu

This is the most popular and widely recommended book for anyone studying or trying to understand the Constitution.
It explains complex ideas like fundamental rights, separation of powers, and amendments in clear, simple language.
It’s ideal for students, UPSC aspirants, and even professionals.

👉 Think of this as your “starter + reference” book on the Indian Constitution.

2. Indian Constitutional Law – M. P. Jain

This is one of the most detailed and academically respected books on the subject.
It covers the evolution of Indian constitutional law, court decisions, and comparative analysis with other countries.
Law students, lawyers, and researchers often treat this as a “Bible of Indian Constitutional Law.”

3. Commentary on the Constitution of India – D. D. Basu

This is the more advanced and deeper work by D. D. Basu.
It explains each Article of the Constitution clause-by-clause, with historical context, debates, and court interpretations.
If you’re serious about understanding legal reasoning, this is the next step after his “Introduction” book.

4. The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation – Granville Austin

Written by historian Granville Austin, this book focuses on how the Constitution was made, not just what it contains.
It tells the story of the Constituent Assembly, the freedom struggle, and the philosophy of social justice and democracy that shaped the Constitution.
It’s perfect for readers who want to understand the soul of the document, not just the text.

5. Our Constitution: An Introduction to India’s Constitution and Constitutional Law – Subhash C. Kashyap

This is a simple and very readable book for beginners.
It explains the Constitution without legal jargon — ideal for general readers, students, or civil service aspirants.
Subhash Kashyap, a former Secretary-General of the Lok Sabha, uses real-life examples to show how the Constitution works in daily governance.

6. India’s Constitution: Origins and Evolution – S. Pal

This book looks at how India’s Constitution evolved through amendments, court decisions, and changing social needs.
It includes summaries of key Supreme Court judgments and how they shaped modern constitutional law.
A great book for understanding how the Constitution grew over time.

7. Sixteen Stormy Days: The Story of the First Amendment – Tripurdaman Singh

This book tells the dramatic story of India’s First Amendment (1951) — one of the most controversial amendments that limited freedom of speech and protected land reforms.
It shows how the Constitution faced its first big political test.
It reads like a story — historical, engaging, and revealing about the early years of Indian democracy.

8. The Indian Constitution: A Conversation with Power – Gautam Bhatia

This is a modern and analytical take on how the Constitution deals with power, rights, and institutions.
Gautam Bhatia, a constitutional lawyer and writer, connects old constitutional principles with today’s issues — privacy, free speech, dissent, and democracy.
A must-read for those interested in modern constitutional debates.

9. To Kill a Democracy: India’s Passage to Despotism – Debasish Roy Chowdhury & John Keane

This book goes beyond law and explores how the spirit of the Constitution — democracy, equality, and rights — can weaken in modern times.
It’s not a legal textbook but a critical commentary on how constitutional values survive or struggle in politics and society.
Great for readers who want a broader social view of constitutional decay and revival.

10. The Constitution of India (Bare Act / Official Text)

No matter how many books you read, nothing replaces the original text of the Constitution itself.
Keep a copy of the Bare Act of the Constitution of India — updated with the latest amendments.
There are various editions (like pocket or hardbound) — perfect for law students and researchers.

👉 Always go back to the original text. Every answer begins there.

Quick Tip for Learners

Start with Subhash Kashyap if you’re a beginner.
Move to D. D. Basu once you’re comfortable.
Then, explore Granville Austin or M. P. Jain to get the deeper constitutional vision.

If you want to understand the Constitution beyond legal lines — how it lives in society and politics — read Gautam Bhatia or Tripurdaman Singh.

These books help us not only read it but also feel it — the logic, the philosophy, and the humanity behind every Article and Right.

Whether you’re a student, a teacher, a lawyer, or just a curious citizen — these books will help you see why our Constitution is the real backbone of Indian democracy.

Conclusion

The Constitution of India is much more than a legal document — it’s the backbone of our democracy and the soul of our nation. It reflects India’s journey from colonial rule to freedom, from diversity to unity. Every Article, Right, and Directive Principle carries the dream of equality, justice, and dignity for every citizen. Even after decades, it continues to evolve through amendments, adapting to the needs of changing times.

What makes it truly special is that it belongs to the people — written by Indians, for Indians, and serving as the guiding light of our republic. As we move forward, it reminds us that democracy is not just about having rights, but also about fulfilling our duties. The Constitution stands as a living promise — to protect freedom, promote fairness, and keep India united in its spirit of “We, the People.”

The Constitution of India

The Constitution of India

Parts of Indian Constitution

Schedules of the Constitution of India

List of All Articles (1-395) of Indian Constitution

Amendments

Timeline of formation of the Constitution of India

1858 – British Crown Takes Over

1919 – Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms

1928 – Nehru Report

1935 – Government of India Act

1942 – Cripps Mission

1946 – Cabinet Mission Plan

9 December 1946 – First Meeting

11 December 1946 – Dr. Rajendra Prasad Elected

13 December 1946 – Objective Resolution

15 August 1947 – India’s Independence

29 August 1947 – Drafting Committee Formed

February 1948 – First Draft Published

4 November 1948 – Draft Constitution Presented

26 November 1949 – Constitution Adopted

24 January 1950 – Members Sign the Constitution

26 January 1950 – Constitution Comes Into Force

Sources of The Constitution of India

Government of India Act, 1935

United Kingdom (UK)

United States of America (USA)

Ireland

Canada

Australia

Germany (Weimar Constitution)

USSR (Russia)

France

Japan

South Africa

Books on the Constitution of India

Conclusion

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