The Constitution of India
It is the longest written constitution of any country in the world, adopted by the Constituent Assembly of India on 26th November 1949 and came into effect on 26th January 1950, a day that is celebrated annually as Republic Day in India.
The Preamble to the Constitution declares India to be a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular, and Democratic Republic. It aims to secure justice, liberty, equality, and fraternity for its citizens.
The need for a Constitution was felt after India gained independence from British rule on 15th August 1947. The task of drafting the Constitution was entrusted to the Constituent Assembly of India, which was formed in December 1946. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar served as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee, which was responsible for drafting the document.
| Topic | Details |
|---|---|
| Jurisdiction | Applies to the entire country of India |
| Ratified On | 26 November 1949 Adopted |
| Came into Force | 26 January 1950 Republic Day |
| System of Government | Federal, Parliamentary, Democratic Republic |
| Structure of Government | Executive, Legislature, and Judiciary |
| Head of State | President of India |
| Head of Government | Prime Minister of India and Council of Ministers |
| Parliament | Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha |
| Judiciary | Supreme Court, High Courts, and District Courts |
| Federal System | Power shared between Centre and States (Centre has stronger authority) |
| Electoral College | Used for election of President and Vice President |
| Entrenchments | Special provisions for amendment of certain constitutional parts |
| Total Amendments | 106 (as of 2025) |
| Last Amendment | 28 September 2023 (106th Amendment) |
| Total Articles | 470 Articles (after amendments till 2025) |
| Citation | Constitution of India (updated till 1 May 2024) |
| Location | Samvidhan Sadan (Old Parliament Building), New Delhi, India |
| Signatories | 284 Members of the Constituent Assembly |
| Replaced | Government of India Act, 1935 and Indian Independence Act, 1947 |
Parts of Indian Constitution
The Constitution of India is not just a book of laws — it’s the soul of our democracy. It defines how our government works, what powers each part of the government has, and what rights and duties citizens enjoy.
When the Constitution was adopted on 26th January 1950, it was one of the longest written constitutions in the world. It originally had 22 Parts, 395 Articles, and 8 Schedules. Over the years, through amendments, it has grown — as of 2025, the Constitution now has 25 Parts, 470+ Articles, and 12 Schedules.
Each Part of the Constitution focuses on a specific area — like Fundamental Rights, the Parliament, the Judiciary, States, Emergency Provisions, and so on. Together, they make up the full framework that runs the Republic of India.
Let’s go through each Part of the Constitution in simple, easy words and understand what it covers and why it matters.
| Part | Articles | Subject |
|---|---|---|
| Part I | Articles 1–4 | The Union and Its Territory |
| Part II | Articles 5–11 | Citizenship |
| Part III | Articles 12–35 | Fundamental Rights |
| Part IV | Articles 36–51 | Directive Principles of State Policy |
| Part IVA | Article 51A | Fundamental Duties |
| Part V | Articles 52–151 | The Union |
| Part VI | Articles 152–237 | The States |
| Part VII | — | States in the B Part of the First Schedule (Repealed) |
| Part VIII | Articles 239–242 | The Union Territories |
| Part IX | Articles 243–243O | The Panchayats |
| Part IXA | Articles 243P–243ZG | The Municipalities |
| Part IXB | Articles 243ZH–243ZT | Co-operative Societies |
| Part X | Articles 244–244A | The Scheduled and Tribal Areas |
| Part XI | Articles 245–263 | Relations Between the Union and the States |
| Part XII | Articles 264–300A | Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits |
| Part XIII | Articles 301–307 | Trade, Commerce and Intercourse |
| Part XIV | Articles 308–323 | Services under the Union and the States |
| Part XIVA | Articles 323A–323B | Tribunals |
| Part XV | Articles 324–329A | Elections |
| Part XVI | Articles 330–342 | Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes |
| Part XVII | Articles 343–351 | Official Language |
| Part XVIII | Articles 352–360 | Emergency Provisions |
| Part XIX | Articles 361–367 | Miscellaneous |
| Part XX | Article 368 | Amendment of the Constitution |
| Part XXI | Articles 369–392 | Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions |
| Part XXII | Articles 393–395 | Short Title, Commencement and Repeals |
| Part XXIII | Articles 330A–342B | Special Provisions (Recent Amendments) |
| Part XXIV | — | Territory, Citizenship and Other Matters (Recent Additions) |
| Part XXV | — | New Provisions (Post–104th Amendment Adjustments) |
The Parts of the Indian Constitution show how carefully the framers designed every detail of governance — from village panchayats to the Supreme Court, from citizenship to emergency powers.
Each part is like a chapter in the story of India’s democracy. Together, they ensure that our nation runs smoothly, protects people’s rights, and adapts to changing times.
Even after more than 75 years, the Constitution remains strong and living — not because it’s perfect, but because it keeps growing, just like India itself.
Schedules of the Constitution of India
The Constitution of India is not just a book of laws — it’s a living document that guides the country’s political, social, and legal system. It has Articles, Parts, and something many people overlook — the Schedules.
If the Articles are like the main chapters of the Constitution,
the Schedules are like the appendices — they provide extra details, lists, and explanations that support the main text.
Originally, when the Constitution came into effect in 1950, there were 8 Schedules.
Over the years, through amendments, 4 more were added, making it 12 Schedules in total today.
Each Schedule has a specific purpose — from listing the states, languages, and forms of oaths, to defining how seats in the Rajya Sabha are divided, and even how salaries of government officers are fixed.
Let’s explore each of these 12 Schedules one by one, in simple and clear words.
Schedules are lists or tables attached to the Constitution.
They contain detailed information that supports the Articles —
like maps, names, numbers, powers, or procedures — which would otherwise make the Articles too long.
For example:
-
Article 1 talks about “India and its territory,” and the First Schedule lists all the States and Union Territories.
-
Article 343 talks about the “official languages,” and the Eighth Schedule lists those languages.
So, the Articles state the principles, while the Schedules list the specifics.
The 12 Schedules of the Indian Constitution
Below is the complete list of all 12 Schedules, with simple explanations for each.
| Schedule | What It Contains |
|---|---|
| First Schedule | Lists all States and Union Territories with their territories. |
| Second Schedule | Salaries, allowances, and privileges of top officials like President, Governors, Judges, etc. |
| Third Schedule | Forms of oaths or affirmations taken by government officials and legislators. |
| Fourth Schedule | Allocation of seats to each State and Union Territory in the Rajya Sabha. |
| Fifth Schedule | Administration and control of Scheduled Areas and Tribes. |
| Sixth Schedule | Administration of tribal areas in North-Eastern States through Autonomous Councils. |
| Seventh Schedule | Division of powers between Union and States — Union List, State List, Concurrent List. |
| Eighth Schedule | List of 22 officially recognized languages in India. |
| Ninth Schedule | Protects certain land reform and social welfare laws from judicial review. |
| Tenth Schedule | Anti-Defection Law — disqualification of legislators for switching political parties. |
| Eleventh Schedule | Lists 29 subjects under Panchayats (rural local government). |
| Twelfth Schedule | Lists 18 subjects under Municipalities (urban local government). |
First Schedule – States and Union Territories
This First Schedule lists all the States and Union Territories of India, along with their territories. Originally, there were 14 States and 6 Union Territories in 1950. Today (after many reorganizations), India has 28 States and 8 Union Territories. It also explains how new states or UTs can be formed or existing ones can be changed. The First Schedule is the map of India in words — listing all the parts that make up the country.
Second Schedule – Salaries, Allowances, and Privileges
This Second schedule defines the salaries and allowances for top officials of the government.
It includes:
-
The President and Governors
-
The Speaker, Deputy Speaker, Chairman, and Deputy Chairman of Parliament and State Legislatures
-
The Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts
-
The Comptroller and Auditor-General (CAG)
It also defines their privileges and pension rights. This Schedule is like the salary chart for India’s highest officials.
Third Schedule – Forms of Oaths or Affirmations
This third schedule lists the official oaths taken by:
-
The President and Vice President
-
Ministers at the Union and State level
-
Members of Parliament and State Legislatures
-
Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts
-
Comptroller and Auditor-General (CAG)
Each oath includes a promise to bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India. The Third Schedule tells us the exact words of oath used when leaders and officials take office.
Fourth Schedule – Allocation of Seats in the Rajya Sabha
This Fourth schedule shows how many seats each State and Union Territory gets in the Rajya Sabha (Council of States). The number of seats depends on the population of the state or territory.
For example:
-
Uttar Pradesh has the most seats,
-
while smaller UTs like Goa or Sikkim have fewer.
The Fourth Schedule explains how India’s States and UTs are represented in the Rajya Sabha.
Fifth Schedule – Administration and Control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled Tribes
This Fifth schedule gives special provisions for the administration of areas with large tribal populations.
It provides for:
-
Tribal Advisory Councils in states
-
Governor’s powers to manage Scheduled Areas
-
Presidential power to declare or modify such areas
It aims to protect the culture, land, and rights of Scheduled Tribes while promoting their welfare. The Fifth Schedule safeguards the tribal communities living in mainland India.
Sixth Schedule – Administration of Tribal Areas in the North-East
This Sixth schedule is specific to tribal regions in the North-Eastern states — like Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram. It allows for the creation of Autonomous District Councils and Regional Councils, which have legislative and administrative powers for local governance. These councils can make laws on subjects like land, forests, water, agriculture, and village administration. The Sixth Schedule gives self-rule and protection to North-Eastern tribal communities.
Seventh Schedule – Division of Powers Between the Union and States
The Seventh Schedule is one of the most important schedules of the Constitution. It divides the powers and subjects of law-making between the Union (Centre) and the States.
It has three lists:
-
Union List – 97 subjects (like defence, foreign affairs, railways, currency)
-
State List – 66 subjects (like police, health, agriculture)
-
Concurrent List – 47 subjects (like education, marriage, forests)
If there’s ever a conflict, the Union law prevails. The Seventh Schedule decides who makes what laws in India.
Eighth Schedule – Languages
This Eighth schedule lists the languages recognized by the Indian Constitution. Originally, there were 14 languages listed in 1950. Now there are 22 languages, including Hindi, English, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, Gujarati, Marathi, Malayalam, Punjabi, Kannada, Odia, Assamese, and others. The Constitution also encourages the development and promotion of these languages. The Eighth Schedule is the list of India’s official languages.
Ninth Schedule – Validation of Certain Acts and Regulations
This ninth schedule was added by the First Amendment in 1951 to protect certain land reform laws from being challenged in courts. It contains laws that deal with land redistribution, tenancy reforms, and abolition of zamindari.
Over time, many laws have been added to it — but in 2007, the Supreme Court ruled that even laws in this schedule can be reviewed if they violate the basic structure of the Constitution. The Ninth Schedule protects social reform laws (especially land reforms) from judicial interference.
Tenth Schedule – Anti-Defection Law
This was added by the 52nd Amendment Act, 1985. It prevents political defections — when elected members switch parties for personal or political gain.
If a Member of Parliament or State Assembly switches parties or disobeys party directions during a vote, they can lose their seat. The Speaker or Chairman of the House decides disqualification cases. The Tenth Schedule keeps political stability by discouraging party-hopping.
Eleventh Schedule – Powers of the Panchayats
Added by the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992, this schedule lists 29 subjects that can be handled by Panchayati Raj Institutions at the village, block, and district levels.
Some subjects include:
-
Agriculture
-
Rural housing
-
Drinking water
-
Roads
-
Health and sanitation
-
Poverty alleviation programs
The Eleventh Schedule gives local self-government powers to villages.
Twelfth Schedule – Powers of the Municipalities
Added by the 74th Amendment Act, 1992, this schedule lists 18 subjects related to urban local governance — for Municipalities and Corporations.
It includes:
-
Urban planning
-
Water supply
-
Public health
-
Solid waste management
-
Urban forestry
-
Slum improvement
The Twelfth Schedule empowers city governments to manage local urban affairs. The Schedules make the Constitution clear, organized, and practical. Instead of crowding the main Articles with long lists and technical details, the Schedules keep that information neatly separated. They also make amendments easier — Parliament can update or revise these lists without rewriting entire Articles.
List of All Articles (1-395) of Indian Constitution
The Constitution initially had 395 articles, which have been expanded through various amendments. Articles detail everything from the rights and duties of citizens, to the powers and functions of the government at various levels.
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| PART I: THE UNION AND ITS TERRITORY | |
| Article 1 | Name and territory of the Union |
| Article 2 | Admission or establishment of new States |
| Article 2A | Repealed |
| Article 3 | Formation of new States and alteration of areas |
| Article 4 | Amendment of Schedules |
| PART II: CITIZENSHIP | |
| Article 5 | Citizenship at commencement |
| Article 6 | Migrants from Pakistan |
| Article 7 | Migrants to Pakistan |
| Article 8 | Indian origin abroad |
| Article 9 | Foreign citizenship restriction |
| Article 10 | Continuance of citizenship |
| Article 11 | Parliament regulates citizenship |
| PART III: FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS | |
| Article 12 | Definition |
| Article 13 | Laws inconsistent with rights |
| Right to Equality | |
| Article 14 | Equality before law |
| Article 15 | No discrimination |
| Article 16 | Equal opportunity |
| Article 17 | Abolition of untouchability |
| Article 18 | Abolition of titles |
| Right to Freedom | |
| Article 19 | Freedom rights |
| Article 20 | Protection in conviction |
| Article 21 | Life and liberty |
| Article 21A | Right to education |
| Article 22 | Protection against arrest |
| Right against Exploitation | |
| Article 23 | Prohibition of trafficking |
| Article 24 | Child labour prohibition |
| Freedom of Religion | |
| Article 25 | Freedom of religion |
| Article 26 | Religious affairs |
| Article 27 | No tax for religion |
| Article 28 | Religious instruction |
| Cultural & Educational Rights | |
| Article 29 | Protection of minorities |
| Article 30 | Minority institutions |
| Constitutional Remedies | |
| Article 32 | Constitutional remedies |
| Article 33 | Rights for forces |
| Article 34 | Martial law |
| Article 35 | Legislation for rights |
| PART IV: DPSP | |
| Article 36 | Definition |
| Article 37 | Application |
| Article 38 | Social order |
| Article 39 | Policy principles |
| Article 39A | Legal aid |
| Article 40 | Panchayats |
| Article 41 | Right to work |
| Article 42 | Humane conditions |
| Article 43 | Living wage |
| Article 43A | Workers participation |
| Article 43B | Co-operatives |
| Article 44 | Uniform civil code |
| Article 45 | Free education |
| Article 46 | SC/ST welfare |
| Article 47 | Public health |
| Article 48 | Agriculture |
| Article 48A | Environment |
| Article 49 | Monuments |
| Article 50 | Judiciary separation |
| Article 51 | International peace |
| PART IVA: FUNDAMENTAL DUTIES | |
| Article 51A | Fundamental Duties |
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| PART V: THE UNION | |
| CHAPTER I: THE EXECUTIVE | |
| The President and Vice-President | |
| Article 52 | The President of India |
| Article 53 | Executive power of Union |
| Article 54 | Election of President |
| Article 55 | Manner of election |
| Article 56 | Term of office |
| Article 57 | Re-election eligibility |
| Article 58 | Qualifications |
| Article 59 | Conditions of office |
| Article 60 | Oath by President |
| Article 61 | Impeachment procedure |
| Article 62 | Election timing |
| Article 63 | Vice-President |
| Article 64 | VP as Chairman of Rajya Sabha |
| Article 65 | VP acting as President |
| Article 66 | Election of VP |
| Article 67 | Term of VP |
| Article 68 | Vacancy filling |
| Article 69 | Oath of VP |
| Article 70 | Discharge of functions |
| Article 71 | Election disputes |
| Article 72 | Pardoning power |
| Article 73 | Extent of executive power |
| Council of Ministers | |
| Article 74 | Advice to President |
| Article 75 | Ministers provisions |
| Attorney-General | |
| Article 76 | Attorney-General for India |
| Government Business | |
| Article 77 | Conduct of business |
| Article 78 | PM duties |
| CHAPTER II: PARLIAMENT | |
| General | |
| Article 79 | Parliament structure |
| Article 80 | Rajya Sabha composition |
| Article 81 | Lok Sabha composition |
| Article 82 | Delimitation |
| Article 83 | Duration |
| Article 84 | Qualifications |
| Article 85 | Sessions |
| Article 86 | President address |
| Article 87 | Special address |
| Article 88 | Rights of Ministers |
| Officers of Parliament | |
| Article 89 | Chairman & Deputy Chairman |
| Article 90 | Vacation/removal |
| Article 91 | Acting Chairman |
| Article 92 | Presiding restrictions |
| Article 93 | Speaker & Deputy Speaker |
| Article 94 | Removal |
| Article 95 | Acting Speaker |
| Article 96 | Presiding restriction |
| Article 97 | Salaries |
| Article 98 | Secretariat |
| Conduct of Business | |
| Article 99 | Oath |
| Article 100 | Voting |
| Disqualification | |
| Article 101 | Vacation of seats |
| Article 102 | Disqualification |
| Article 103 | Decision on disqualification |
| Article 104 | Penalty |
| Privileges | |
| Article 105 | Powers & privileges |
| Article 106 | Salaries |
| Legislative Procedure | |
| Article 107 | Bills |
| Article 108 | Joint sitting |
| Article 109 | Money Bills |
| Article 110 | Definition |
| Article 111 | Assent |
| Financial Matters | |
| Article 112 | Budget |
| Article 113 | Estimates |
| Article 114 | Appropriation |
| Article 115 | Grants |
| Article 116 | Votes |
| Article 117 | Financial Bills |
| General Procedure | |
| Article 118 | Rules |
| Article 119 | Financial procedure |
| Article 120 | Language |
| Article 121 | Restriction |
| Article 122 | Courts interference |
| CHAPTER III: LEGISLATIVE POWERS OF THE PRESIDENT | |
| Article 123 | Ordinance making power |
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| CHAPTER IV: THE UNION JUDICIARY | |
| Article 124 | Establishment and constitution of Supreme Court |
| Article 124A | National Judicial Appointments Commission (Unconstitutional) |
| Article 124B | Functions of Commission |
| Article 124C | Power of Parliament to make law |
| Article 125 | Salaries of Judges |
| Article 126 | Acting Chief Justice |
| Article 127 | Ad hoc judges |
| Article 128 | Retired Judges attendance |
| Article 129 | Court of record |
| Article 130 | Seat of Supreme Court |
| Article 131 | Original jurisdiction |
| Article 131A | Repealed |
| Article 132 | Appellate jurisdiction (constitutional cases) |
| Article 133 | Appellate jurisdiction (civil) |
| Article 134 | Appellate jurisdiction (criminal) |
| Article 134A | Certificate for appeal |
| Article 135 | Federal Court powers |
| Article 136 | Special leave to appeal |
| Article 137 | Review of judgments |
| Article 138 | Enlargement of jurisdiction |
| Article 139 | Writ powers |
| Article 139A | Transfer of cases |
| Article 140 | Ancillary powers |
| Article 141 | Law binding on all courts |
| Article 142 | Enforcement of decrees/orders |
| Article 143 | President consultation |
| Article 144 | Authorities to act in aid |
| Article 144A | Repealed |
| Article 145 | Rules of Court |
| Article 146 | Officers & expenses |
| Article 147 | Interpretation |
| CHAPTER V: COMPTROLLER AND AUDITOR-GENERAL OF INDIA | |
| Article 148 | Comptroller and Auditor-General of India |
| Article 149 | Duties and powers |
| Article 150 | Form of accounts |
| Article 151 | Audit reports |
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| PART VI: THE STATES | |
| CHAPTER I: GENERAL | |
| Article 152 | Definition |
| CHAPTER II: THE EXECUTIVE | |
| The Governor | |
| Article 153 | Governors of States |
| Article 154 | Executive power of State |
| Article 155 | Appointment of Governor |
| Article 156 | Term of office |
| Article 157 | Qualifications |
| Article 158 | Conditions of office |
| Article 159 | Oath by Governor |
| Article 160 | Discharge of functions |
| Article 161 | Pardoning power |
| Article 162 | Extent of executive power |
| Council of Ministers | |
| Article 163 | Aid and advice |
| Article 164 | Provisions |
| Advocate-General | |
| Article 165 | Advocate-General for State |
| Government Business | |
| Article 166 | Conduct of business |
| Article 167 | Duties of CM |
| CHAPTER III: STATE LEGISLATURE | |
| General | |
| Article 168 | State Legislature |
| Article 169 | Legislative Councils |
| Article 170 | Assembly composition |
| Article 171 | Council composition |
| Article 172 | Duration |
| Article 173 | Qualification |
| Article 174 | Sessions & dissolution |
| Article 175 | Governor address |
| Article 176 | Special address |
| Article 177 | Rights of Ministers |
| Officers | |
| Article 178 | Speaker & Deputy Speaker |
| Article 179 | Removal |
| Article 180 | Acting Speaker |
| Article 181 | Presiding restriction |
| Article 182 | Chairman & Deputy Chairman |
| Article 183 | Removal |
| Article 184 | Acting Chairman |
| Article 185 | Restriction |
| Article 186 | Salaries |
| Article 187 | Secretariat |
| Conduct | |
| Article 188 | Oath |
| Article 189 | Voting |
| Disqualification | |
| Article 190 | Vacation |
| Article 191 | Disqualification |
| Article 192 | Decision |
| Article 193 | Penalty |
| Privileges | |
| Article 194 | Powers & privileges |
| Article 195 | Salaries |
| Legislative Procedure | |
| Article 196 | Bills |
| Article 197 | Restrictions |
| Article 198 | Money Bills |
| Article 199 | Definition |
| Article 200 | Assent |
| Article 201 | Reserved Bills |
| Financial | |
| Article 202 | Budget |
| Article 203 | Estimates |
| Article 204 | Appropriation |
| Article 205 | Grants |
| Article 206 | Votes |
| Article 207 | Financial Bills |
| General Procedure | |
| Article 208 | Rules |
| Article 209 | Financial procedure |
| Article 210 | Language |
| Article 211 | Restriction |
| Article 212 | Courts interference |
| CHAPTER IV: GOVERNOR POWER | |
| Article 213 | Ordinance power |
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| CHAPTER V: THE HIGH COURTS IN THE STATES | |
| Article 214 | High Courts for States |
| Article 215 | Courts of record |
| Article 216 | Constitution of High Courts |
| Article 217 | Appointment & conditions of Judges |
| Article 218 | SC provisions applied |
| Article 219 | Oath by Judges |
| Article 220 | Restriction on practice |
| Article 221 | Salaries |
| Article 222 | Transfer of Judge |
| Article 223 | Acting Chief Justice |
| Article 224 | Additional & acting Judges |
| Article 224A | Retired Judges appointment |
| Article 225 | Jurisdiction |
| Article 226 | Writ powers |
| Article 226A | Repealed |
| Article 227 | Superintendence |
| Article 228 | Transfer of cases |
| Article 228A | Repealed |
| Article 229 | Officers & expenses |
| Article 230 | Jurisdiction to UTs |
| Article 231 | Common High Court |
| CHAPTER VI: SUBORDINATE COURTS | |
| Article 233 | Appointment of district judges |
| Article 233A | Validation of appointments |
| Article 234 | Recruitment to judicial service |
| Article 235 | Control over subordinate courts |
| Article 236 | Interpretation |
| Article 237 | Application to magistrates |
| PART VII: STATES IN PART B (REPEALED) | |
| Article 238 | Repealed |
| PART VIII: THE UNION TERRITORIES | |
| Article 239 | Administration of UTs |
| Article 239A | Local Legislatures |
| Article 239AA | Special provisions for Delhi |
| Article 239AB | Failure of constitutional machinery |
| Article 239B | Ordinance power |
| Article 240 | President regulations |
| Article 241 | High Courts for UTs |
| Article 242 | Repealed |
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| PART IX: THE PANCHAYATS | |
| Article 243 | Definitions |
| Article 243A | Gram Sabha |
| Article 243B | Constitution of Panchayats |
| Article 243C | Composition of Panchayats |
| Article 243D | Reservation of seats |
| Article 243E | Duration of Panchayats |
| Article 243F | Disqualifications |
| Article 243G | Powers & responsibilities |
| Article 243H | Tax powers & funds |
| Article 243I | Finance Commission |
| Article 243J | Audit of accounts |
| Article 243K | Elections |
| Article 243L | Application to UTs |
| Article 243M | Not applicable to certain areas |
| Article 243N | Continuance of laws |
| Article 243O | Bar on court interference |
| PART IXA: THE MUNICIPALITIES | |
| Article 243P | Definitions |
| Article 243Q | Constitution of Municipalities |
| Article 243R | Composition |
| Article 243S | Wards Committees |
| Article 243T | Reservation |
| Article 243U | Duration |
| Article 243V | Disqualification |
| Article 243W | Powers & responsibilities |
| Article 243X | Tax powers |
| Article 243Y | Finance Commission |
| Article 243Z | Audit |
| Article 243ZA | Elections |
| Article 243ZB | Application to UTs |
| Article 243ZC | Not applicable to certain areas |
| Article 243ZD | District planning committee |
| Article 243ZE | Metropolitan planning committee |
| Article 243ZF | Continuance of laws |
| Article 243ZG | Bar on court interference |
| PART IXB: CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES | |
| Article 243ZH | Definitions |
| Article 243ZI | Incorporation |
| Article 243ZJ | Board structure & term |
| Article 243ZK | Elections |
| Article 243ZL | Supersession of board |
| Article 243ZM | Audit |
| Article 243ZN | General meetings |
| Article 243ZO | Right to information |
| Article 243ZP | Returns |
| Article 243ZQ | Offences & penalties |
| Article 243ZR | Multi-state societies |
| Article 243ZS | Application to UTs |
| Article 243ZT | Continuance of laws |
| PART X: SCHEDULED AND TRIBAL AREAS | |
| Article 244 | Administration of Scheduled & Tribal Areas |
| Article 244A | Autonomous State in Assam |
| Article | Provision |
|---|---|
| PART XI: RELATIONS BETWEEN UNION AND STATES | |
| CHAPTER I: LEGISLATIVE RELATIONS | |
| Distribution of Legislative Powers | |
| Article 245 | Extent of laws |
| Article 246 | Subject-matter of laws |
| Article 246A | GST provision |
| Article 247 | Additional courts |
| Article 248 | Residuary powers |
| Article 249 | National interest legislation |
| Article 250 | During Emergency |
| Article 251 | Inconsistency (249 & 250) |
| Article 252 | Legislation for States by consent |
| Article 253 | International agreements |
| Article 254 | Inconsistency between laws |
| Article 255 | Procedural requirements |
| CHAPTER II: ADMINISTRATIVE RELATIONS | |
| General | |
| Article 256 | Obligation of States & Union |
| Article 257 | Union control |
| Article 257A | Repealed |
| Article 258 | Union conferring powers |
| Article 258A | States entrusting functions |
| Article 259 | Repealed |
| Article 260 | Jurisdiction outside India |
| Article 261 | Public acts & records |
| Water Disputes | |
| Article 262 | Inter-State water disputes |
| Inter-State Council | |
| Article 263 | Inter-State Council |
| PART XII: FINANCE, PROPERTY, CONTRACTS & SUITS | |
| CHAPTER I: FINANCE | |
| General | |
| Article 264 | Interpretation |
| Article 265 | No tax without law |
| Article 266 | Consolidated Funds |
| Article 267 | Contingency Fund |
| Distribution of Revenues | |
| Article 268 | Duties by Union, collected by States |
| Article 268A | Repealed |
| Article 269 | Taxes assigned to States |
| Article 269A | Inter-State GST |
| Article 270 | Taxes distribution |
| Article 271 | Surcharge |
| Article 272 | Repealed |
| Article 273 | Grants on jute |
| Article 274 | President recommendation |
| Article 275 | Grants to States |
| Article 276 | Profession tax |
| Article 277 | Savings |
| Article 278 | Repealed |
| Article 279 | Net proceeds calculation |
| Article 279A | GST Council |
| Article 280 | Finance Commission |
| Article 281 | Recommendations |
| Miscellaneous Financial | |
| Article 282 | Expenditure powers |
| Article 283 | Custody of funds |
| Article 284 | Deposits custody |
| Article 285 | Union property tax exemption |
| Article 286 | Tax restrictions on goods |
| Article 287 | Electricity tax exemption |
| Article 288 | Water/electricity exemption |
| Article 289 | State property tax exemption |
| Article 290 | Adjustment of expenses |
| Article 290A | Devaswom payments |
| Article 291 | Repealed |
| CHAPTER II: BORROWING | |
| Article 292 | Borrowing by Union |
| Article 293 | Borrowing by States |
| CHAPTER III: PROPERTY & CONTRACTS | |
| Article 294 | Succession (certain cases) |
| Article 295 | Succession (other cases) |
| Article 296 | Escheat property |
| Article 297 | Territorial resources |
| Article 298 | Trade power |
| Article 299 | Contracts |
| Article 300 | Suits |
| CHAPTER IV: RIGHT TO PROPERTY | |
| Article 300A | Right to property |
Article Provision PART XIII Article 301 Freedom of trade, commerce Article 302 Parliament restrictions Article 303 Restrictions on powers Article 304 State restrictions Article 305 Saving of laws Article 306 Repealed Article 307 Authority PART XIV Article 308 Interpretation Article 309 Recruitment Article 310 Tenure Article 311 Dismissal Article 312 All India Services Article 312A Service conditions Article 313 Transitional Article 314 Repealed PART XIVA Article 323A Administrative tribunals Article 323B Other tribunals PART XV Article 324 Election Commission Article 325 No exclusion Article 326 Adult suffrage Article 327 Parliament election law Article 328 State election law Article 329 Bar on courts Article 329A Repealed PART XVI Article 330 SC/ST reservation Article 331 Anglo Indian Article 332 State reservation Article 333 Representation Article 334 Reservation duration Article 335 Claims Article 336 Services Article 337 Grants Article 338 SC Commission Article 338A ST Commission Article 338B OBC Commission Article 339 Union control Article 340 Backward classes Article 341 Scheduled Castes Article 342 Scheduled Tribes Article 342A Backward classes PART XVII Article 343 Official language Article 344 Commission Article 345 State language Article 346 Communication Article 347 Special provision Article 348 Court language Article 349 Procedure Article 350 Grievance language Article 350A Mother tongue Article 350B Linguistic officer Article 351 Hindi development PART XVIII Article 352 Emergency Article 353 Effect Article 354 Revenue Article 355 Duty Article 356 President rule Article 357 Powers Article 358 Art 19 suspension Article 359 FR suspension Article 359A Repealed Article 360 Financial emergency PART XIX Article 361 Protection Article 361A Publication Article 361B Disqualification Article 362 Repealed Article 363 Treaty disputes Article 363A Privy purse Article 364 Ports Article 365 Failure Article 366 Definitions Article 367 Interpretation PART XX Article 368 Amendment PART XXI Article 369 Temporary power Article 370 J&K Article 371 Special provisions Article 371A Nagaland Article 371B Assam Article 371C Manipur Article 371D AP Article 371E University Article 371F Sikkim Article 371G Mizoram Article 371H Arunachal Article 371I Goa Article 371J Karnataka Article 372 Existing laws Article 372A Adapt laws Article 373 Detention Article 374 Federal Court Article 375 Courts continue Article 376 HC Judges Article 377 CAG Article 378 PSC Article 378A AP Assembly Article 379–391 Repealed Article 392 Remove difficulties PART XXII Article 393 Short title Article 394 Commencement Article 394A Hindi text Article 395 Repeals
Amendments
The Constitution of India is a living document — it grows, adapts, and changes with time.
When it was adopted on 26 January 1950, the framers knew that India would evolve socially, economically, and politically.
So, they made sure the Constitution could be amended — changed or updated — whenever needed.
These changes are made through Constitutional Amendments under Article 368.
Over the years, India has passed more than 100 amendments to keep pace with changing needs and realities.
Some amendments have expanded people’s rights.
Some have restructured states.
Some have balanced power between Parliament and the judiciary.
Let’s look at the most notable amendments that shaped the India we live in today — explained in simple words.
What Is a Constitutional Amendment?
An amendment means an official change or addition to the Constitution.
It can:
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Add new Articles or Schedules
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Modify existing ones
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Remove outdated provisions
These changes are made to adjust to social and political developments — without rewriting the whole Constitution.
Under Article 368, there are three types of amendments:
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Simple Majority Amendments – Passed like an ordinary law (e.g., formation of new states).
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Special Majority Amendments – Require two-thirds majority in both Houses of Parliament.
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Special Majority + State Ratification – Some amendments also need approval by at least half of the state legislatures (e.g., federal structure changes).
List of Notable Amendments
Below are the key Constitutional Amendments that brought major changes to India’s political and legal structure.
| Amendment No. | Year | Key Highlights |
|---|---|---|
| 1st | 1951 | Added 9th Schedule, restricted freedom of speech, land reforms |
| 7th | 1956 | Reorganization of states on linguistic basis |
| 24th | 1971 | Parliament can amend any part of the Constitution |
| 25th | 1971 | Limited Right to Property, DPSP given priority |
| 26th | 1971 | Abolished Privy Purses |
| 36th | 1975 | Sikkim became a State |
| 42nd | 1976 | Added Socialist, Secular, Integrity; introduced Fundamental Duties |
| 44th | 1978 | Removed Right to Property as a Fundamental Right |
| 52nd | 1985 | Anti-Defection Law (10th Schedule) |
| 61st | 1989 | Voting age reduced to 18 years |
| 69th | 1991 | Delhi given special status (NCT) |
| 73rd | 1992 | Panchayati Raj system (11th Schedule) |
| 74th | 1992 | Municipalities (12th Schedule) |
| 86th | 2002 | Right to Education (Article 21A) |
| 91st | 2003 | Limited size of Council of Ministers |
| 97th | 2011 | Co-operative societies given constitutional status |
| 101st | 2016 | GST introduced |
| 102nd | 2018 | NCBC given constitutional status |
| 103rd | 2019 | 10% EWS reservation |
| 104th | 2020 | Extended SC/ST reservation in Lok Sabha |
| 105th | 2021 | Restored States’ power to identify OBCs |
Timeline of formation of the Constitution of India
The formation of the Constitution of India is a remarkable journey marked by significant events that laid the foundation of the Republic of India. Here’s a timeline of the key milestones in the formation of the Indian Constitution:
The entire process, from the first meeting of the Constituent Assembly to the adoption and implementation of the Constitution, took approximately three years. The Constitution reflects the aspirations of the Indian people and incorporates various features from different countries, adapting them to Indian needs and conditions. G. V. Mavlankar became the first Speaker of the Lok Sabha, marking India's transition to a republic.
Sources of The Constitution of India
The Constitution of India is not just the largest written constitution in the world — it’s also one of the most unique and intelligent blends of ideas ever created.
When the framers began writing it, they didn’t start from scratch. They studied constitutions from all over the world, picked the best features that suited India’s needs, and adapted them to Indian conditions.
As Dr. B. R. Ambedkar said:
“There is nothing to be ashamed of in borrowing. It shows that we have not been slaves of tradition but have been willing to learn from others.”
So, the Indian Constitution is not a copy — it’s a beautiful fusion of the best ideas of governance, justice, liberty, and democracy.
Let’s understand where its different parts came from and how they were shaped.
| Source | Borrowed Features |
|---|---|
| Government of India Act, 1935 | Foundation of the Constitution — federal structure, emergency powers, judiciary, administrative framework. |
| United Kingdom (UK) | Parliamentary system, Rule of Law, Single citizenship, bicameral legislature, cabinet system. |
| United States of America (USA) | Fundamental Rights, Judicial Review, independence of judiciary, Preamble format, impeachment of President. |
| Ireland | Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP), Rajya Sabha nominations, election of the President. |
| Canada | Federal system with strong center, role of Governor, advisory jurisdiction of Supreme Court. |
| Australia | Concurrent List, freedom of trade, joint sitting of both Houses. |
| Germany (Weimar Constitution) | Emergency powers and suspension of rights during crisis. |
| USSR (Russia) | Social & economic justice ideals, Five-Year Plans, Fundamental Duties (added in 1976). |
| France | Republican system, ideals of Liberty, Equality, Fraternity in the Preamble. |
| Japan | Procedure for constitutional amendment. |
| South Africa | Election of Rajya Sabha members and amendment procedure. |
Sources
The Constitution of India is not borrowed — it’s built. Every feature, from Fundamental Rights to the Preamble, carries a bit of global wisdom — but it’s written in India’s own heart and soul.
- Federal system with strong center
- Office of Governor
- Division of powers (Centre & Provinces)
- Public Service Commissions
- Emergency provisions
- Judicial & administrative framework
- Parliamentary system
- Rule of Law
- Single citizenship
- Bicameral legislature
- Cabinet system & PM leadership
- Writ jurisdiction
- Fundamental Rights
- Judicial Review
- Independent Judiciary
- Impeachment of President
- Vice-President post
- Preamble format (“We, the People”)
- Directive Principles of State Policy
- Rajya Sabha nominations
- Election of President
- Strong central federal system
- Governor appointment
- Advisory jurisdiction of Supreme Court
- Residual powers with Union
- Concurrent List
- Trade & commerce freedom
- Joint sitting of Parliament
- Emergency provisions
- Suspension of rights
- Social & economic justice
- Five-Year Plans
- Fundamental Duties (1976)
- Republic system
- Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
- Procedure for constitutional amendment
- Election of Rajya Sabha members
- Amendment procedures
Our founders didn’t copy other nations — they studied, understood, and Indianized the best global principles.
That’s why, even decades later, the Indian Constitution remains flexible, modern, and relevant —
a living document that keeps India democratic, diverse, and strong.
Books on the Constitution of India
The Constitution of India is one of the most detailed and powerful constitutions in the world.
To truly understand how it was framed, how it works, and how it shapes our democracy, you need the right books — written by experts, scholars, and even those who lived through its making.
Here’s a list of the 10 most important and trusted books on the Indian Constitution — ranging from beginner-friendly to advanced reference works.
| Reader Type | Recommended Book |
|---|---|
| Beginner / General Reader | Our Constitution – Subhash C. Kashyap |
| Student (UPSC / Civics) | Introduction to the Constitution of India – D. D. Basu |
| Law Student | Indian Constitutional Law – M. P. Jain |
| Academic / Researcher | Commentary on the Constitution of India – D. D. Basu |
| Historian / Political Interest | The Indian Constitution: Cornerstone of a Nation – Granville Austin |
| Modern Reader | The Indian Constitution: A Conversation with Power – Gautam Bhatia |
| Constitutional Evolution | India’s Constitution: Origins and Evolution – S. Pal |
| Focused Topic (Amendment) | Sixteen Stormy Days – Tripurdaman Singh |
| Critical / Socio-Political Analysis | To Kill a Democracy – Debasish Roy Chowdhury & John Keane |
| Legal Practice / Reference | The Constitution of India (Bare Act) – Updated Edition |
Whether you’re a student, a teacher, a lawyer, or just a curious citizen — these books will help you see why our Constitution is the real backbone of Indian democracy.
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